Schisms Connected With Questions of Discipline -- Montanism

IV.--SCHISMS CONNECTED WITH QUESTIONS OF DISCIPLINE, -- MONTANISM.

The schism of Novatus and Felicissimus, which arose in Carthage in the time of Cyprian, was due mainly to the spirit of faction. There was no very deep conviction back of the plea put forth by the schismatics for a less rigid discipline. They seem to have maintained themselves but a short time. The Novatian schism at Rome, near the same time, was born of much more earnest sentiments; Novatian and his followers having a hearty attachment to a stringent discipline, and accusing the Catholic party of unchristian laxity. The Novatian sect showed great persistence. It spread in various regions, and traces of it appear as late as the sixth century. The Meletian schism, which arose in Egypt in the early part of the fourth century, was precipitated by a disagreement between Meletius, Bishop of Lycopolis, and his metropolitan, Peter of Alexandria. Meletius is said to have championed the cause of strict discipline in the spirit of aggression and insubordination. The schism lasted upwards of a century. The separatists affiliated with the Arians.

The most interesting and important of the parties which fell into a sectarian position on account of their views of church discipline were the Montanists. This party derived its name from Montanus, a native of Phrygia in Asia Minor, who assumed the rôle of a prophet and reformer in that region in the last half of the second century. Two female associates, Prisca (or Priscilla) and Maximilla, claimed likewise to be organs of the Divine Comforter promised of Christ.

Among the causes which contributed to the inauguration of Montanism, were the imaginative and enthusiastic temper characteristic of the Phrygians, the excitements of persecution, the memory of the glorious charisms of the apostolic age, and a reaction against the growing ecclesiasticism or exaltation of official rank. As these causes, with the exception of the first, were more or less operative in the Church at large, they gave to Montanism a degree of prevalence much in excess of the importance of its founders. It soon numbered adherents in widely separated regions. The Church became much agitated on its account, and, after treating it with varying degrees of severity, finally assumed an attitude of decisive hostility. In Asia Minor, Montanism resulted in a separate sect (Cataphrygians, Priscillianists, or Pepuzians). In Rome, it was repressed, though not with entire success, since some of its principles found harborage among the Novatian schismatics. In North Africa, it was temporarily a considerable power, and after its apparent decline re-asserted itself inlarge part under new names. It found here also its one illustrious theologian, Tertullian. That he espoused Montanism with great heartiness, is entirely certain; but how this affected his local church relations, is largely a matter for conjecture. Ritschl thinks there is insufficient ground for the conclusion that he became a schismatic, and favors rather the verdict that the contemporary church authorities in his region were so far favorable to Montanism that there was for the time being no need of a separation. [Die Entstehung der alt katholischen Kirche. Ritschl find evidence for this view in a paragraph of Cyprian, Epist., li. (lv.) 21.] Augustine, to be sure, found in his day a schismatic party bearing the name of Tertullianists; but, as Neander states, there is no adequate evidence that this party existed as a schismatic party in the days of Tertullian. They might very naturally claim him as their founder, had he given them simply their principles and not their separate organization. Whether he died a schismatic or not, Tertullian was certainly held in high honor in the Catholic Church shortly after his death.

Montanism has sometimes been classed among the heresies. Its divergence, however, from the Catholic theology of the first centuries was not extensive, and was more in the line of addition than of rejection. The exhibition of its animating spirit was quite as much in the department of discipline, morals, and life, as in that of dogmatics proper; though here, too, it differed from the Church at large more in a quantitative than in a qualitative respect. Its distinguishing features may briefly be described as an ultra super naturalism and an ascetic morality.

Montanism affirmed that a continuance of the charisms of the apostolic age was to be expected as the normal possession of the Church. "The fundamental error," says Pressensé " which marred this grand inspiration, was the failure to comprehend the operation of Christianity except under the form of permanent miracle." [Heresy and Christian Doctrine, Book I., chap. iv.] The Montanists laid great emphasis, not only upon the fact that they were living under the dispensation of the Spirit, but also upon the extraordinary workings of the Spirit. Especially did they regard prophesying as the means appointed by God for the edification and guidance of the Church; and the true condition for prophesying was in their view that form of ecstasy in which all self-control is lost, and the soul rendered utterly passive in the hands of God, --the condition of one in absolute trance. As regards the subject-matter of their prophesying, the Montanists claimed the right to enter every region, even to the rendering of decisions upon questions of speculative theology. Their claim was really an open door toward the unsettling of existing revelation in the name of additional and supplementary disclosures of divine truth. The prophetic theme relished among them, perhaps more than any other, was that of the coming judgments of God, and the introduction of the millennial reign of Christ upon earth. The first Montanists believed that title day was already at hand when the Redeemer would appear to set up his kingdom. Said Maximilla, "After me will be no prophet, but the end will follow." [Epiphanius, Hær., xlviii.] As the Montanists laid the chief stress upon the extraordinary gifts of the Spirit, and considered these gifts equally open to all classes, they were opposed to priestly exclusiveness and hierarchical pretension. At the same time, in their exaggerated preference for their prophets and those who acknowledged their authority, they introduced class distinctions of a very formidable character. The Montanist prophet was made to take the place of the bishop as respects dignity and authority, and the Montanists were ranged around the prophet as a superior caste. Indeed, one is almost reminded of the Gnostic classification, when he finds Tertullian stigmatizing as "psychics" the great body of Christians who refused to accept Montanism, and reserving the name of "spirituals" for the adherents of that system. [See in particular his treatises on Monogamy, Modesty, and Fasting.]

In pursuance of its ascetic morality, Montanism urged an unsparing renunciation of the world, entire abstinence from public offices, and a rigid church discipline. It exalted the virtue of martyrdom, opposed all use of prudential means to escape the persecutor's rage; affirmed the obligation to fast till evening on every Wednesday and Friday, and to abstain from the eating of flesh and luxuries for two weeks in each year; denounced second marriages, and, while allowing the legitimacy of a first marriage, expressed more or less preference for celibacy, Regarding the Church as properly the assembly of the holy, the Montanists argued for a stern treatment of those who violated its sanctity. For lesser sins, committed after baptism and reception into the Church, there must be a show of radical repentance; while mortal sins, such as adultery and apostasy, committed by one in these holy relations, must be punished by irremediable excommunication. God may, perhaps, pardon one thus sundered from Christian fellowship; but the Church is not authorized to proclaim His pardon by restoring the culprit to its communion. In all this, great moral earnestness may be discerned, but also an excessive rigor and spirit of legality.

Through repelling Montanism, the Catholic Church reproduced some of its peculiarities. The infallibility claimed for the Montanist prophets came finally to be asserted of the episcopal hierarchy, and practically was credited in the latter, as much as ever it was in the former, with the power to add to the Scripture revelation. Again, the ascetic tendencies of Montanism found a parallel, or rather were transcended, in the wide-spread system of Monasticism, which came to be treated by the Catholic Church as a favored child.

Manichæism

IV. -- MANICHÆISM.

Like Gnosticism, Manichæism was a mixture of heathenism with Christianity. It differed from average Gnosticism by its smaller appropriation of Christian ideas, its more radical and undisguised naturalism, and its more thorough organization.

Accoring to the Oriental account, [The outcome of recent examinations of Oriental sources may be seen in Smith and Wace, Dictionary of Christian Biography.] which is regarded more trustworthy than the Greek, [Found in Acta Archelai, li.-liv.] Mani, called also Manes or Manichæus, the founder of the Manichæan sect, was a learned Persian. He is said to have been converted to Christianity, and even to have served as a presbyter. At this time there was a special effort to restore the pure Zoroastrian faith, and much discussion as to what articles were to be included in that faith, as well as an increase of hostility to Christianity. In the midst of the agitation, Mani conceived the idea of forming an eclectic system in which Christianity and Zoroastrianism should be combined. Some have supposed that Buddhism was included as a third factor. [So decisively Neander,. Kirchengeschichte vol. ii.; and Baur, Das Manichäische Religions-system.] Certain it is that the system of Mani embraced elements not to be found either in pure Christianity or in pure Zoroastrianism. It is credible, moreover, as tradition reports that Mani visited India. Still, in an age when all sorts of religious and speculative elements were so widely scattered, an age which had shortly before produced the variegated forms of Gnosticism, the direct borrowing from Buddhistic sources, though not improbable, is scarcely a necessary assumption.

Giving himself out as the promised Paraclete,--that is, a divinely enlightened teacher and reformer, [Augustine, Cont. Epist. Manich., vi.-viii.; Cont. Faustum, xiii. 4, xxxii. 18; Acta Archelai, xiii.] -- Mani began to spread his views not far from the middle of the third century. A brief interval of successful propagandism was cut short by persecution. Again, a favorable opportunity was found under the patronage of a friendly king, and converts were being won, when a change of rulers prepared for another change of fortune. Assailed by the ill-will of the king and the hatred of the Magi, Mani was brought to a tragic end. According to one account, he was sentenced to be flayed and hung before the gate of the City. [Acta Arch., Iv.]

The system of Mani starts from the assumption of an absolute dualism. Over against the world of light lies an unoriginated world of darkness, matter, fire which has no power of illumination. At the head of the former stands the good Deity with his angels, who are emanations from himself and channels of his light. In the realm of darkness work wild, ungoverned powers.

Mani is represented as saying: “In one direction on the border of this bright and holy region, there was a land of darkness, deep and vast in extent, where abode fiery bodies, destructive races. Here was boundless darkness, flowing from the same source in immeasurable abundance, with the productions properly belonging to it. Beyond this were muddy, turbid waters, with their inhabitants; and inside of them, winds terrible and violent, with their prince and progenitors, Then again a fiery region of destructions, with its chiefs and peoples; and similarly inside of this, a race full of smoke and gloom, where abode the dreadful prince and chief of all, having around him innumerable princes, himself the mind and source of them all. Such are the five natures of the region of corruption.” (AUGUSTINE, Cont. Epist. Manich., xv.)

At first the two realms are entirely distinct; but at length the powers of darkness, in their raging tumult and strife, approach so near the upper space that they behold a glimmer of its light. Irrepressibly attracted by the unwonted vision, they press toward the light with storm-like confusion and energy; so that the good Deity finds it expedient to send forth the Son of the Mother of Life, the Primal Man, for the defence of the realm. Beset by the powers of darkness, who rush upon him with insatiate desire, the Primal Man is in danger of overthrow, and escapes only through the good offices of the Living Spirit sent to his rescue. As it is, he leaves behind a portion of the essence of light which pertained to him. The Living Spirit, who performs a sort of demiurgical function, raises that part of the luminous essence which is unaffected by contact with matter to the sun and moon. But a portion is left behind imprisoned in matter, to which it is related as a soul. Thus the organism of nature is constituted.
[We have given here the most concrete representation of the manner in which the two realms became intermingled, as it appears in the anti-Manichæan writings of Augustine and in the Acts of the Disputation of Archelaus with Manes. Alexander of Lycopolis used less conorete terms in his description.] Throughout the world on all sides there is more or less of the imprisoned light, or soul. This may be viewed as the suffering Son of man, Jesus Patibilis. The crucifixion is in a sense a continuous event. “The earth,” says the Manichæan Faustus, “conceives and brings forth the mortal Jesus, who, as hanging from every tree, is the life and salvation of men.” [Augustine, Cont. Faustum, xx. 2.] “By your profane fancies,” says Augustine to his former co-religionists, “Christ is not only mingled with heaven and all the stars, but conjoined and compounded with the earth and all its productions.” [Ibid., ii. 5.]

Man, in the system of Mani, is a section of the mingled realm, his soul a portion of the world-soul, his body a portion of the evil matter. His origin was due to the powers of darkness. These minions of the evil kingdom, fearing lest the light which they had captured should be drawn off by the attractive power of the sun and the moon, incased it in a human body. Thus concentrated, the heavenly essence is made conscious of its higher origin, and the new-created man appears likely to escape the dominion of the evil powers. To prevent this, they tempt his fleshly appetites, so multiplying the race, and by partition of the essence weakening in the individual the consciousness of his higher nature.

Redemption is the release of the luminous essence from the bands of dark matter. The Redeemer is the Son of the Primal Man, the Christ, the sun spirit fantastically represented as dwelling in the sun by his power, and in the moon by his wisdom. [Augustine, Cont. Faustum, xx. 2.] Coming down to earth in bodily form, but with only the phantom of a body, he instructs men how to attain their true destiny. Ascetic living is the sum and substance of his commands. By this means the soul is fitted for restoration to its kindred light, and, indeed, may assist to freedom some of the light imprisoned in nature. The man of exemplary continence, who observes the threefold seal of the mouth, the hands, and the breast, [Signaculum oris, abstinence from animal food and strong drink; signaculum manuum, renunciation of property and secular pursuits; signaculum sinus, renunciation of marriage, and abstinence from sensual gratification.] when he partakes of the fruits of the earth sets free a portion of the captive light. Death, as the Manichæans conceived, is the liberator of the spiritual part of the believer, which passes on board the great light-ships in the heavens, the waxing of the moon being visible evidence of the cargo received. [Acta Archelai, viii.; Alexander of Lycopolis, iv. The former gives the curious representation that the son who was sent for the salvation of souls “constructed an instrument with twelve urns (signs of the zodiac), which is made to revolve by the sphere, and draws up with it the souls of the dying. And the greater luminary receives these souls, and purifies them with its rays, and then passes them on to the moon; and in this manner the moon's disk is filled up.”]

For the government of the sect, a standing college of twelve apostles, at the head of which was a president who was to be regarded as the representative of the founder, was instituted. Under this body stood seventy-two bishops, and under these, presbyters, deacons, and evangelists. The whole sect was divided into two classes,--the elect and the hearers. The elect held the rank of a priestly caste. They were bound to a strict asceticism, avoided marriage, renounced all private property, abstained from animal food, and took no part in preparing vegetable food lest they should be guilty of wounding that life which is held in the bonds of matter. The labors of the hearers, who were under obligation to render them great reverence, served for their support. The hearers led a less ascetic life, and were not inducted into the inner mysteries of the faith.

The Manichæan sect spread from Persia into Western Asia, North Africa, Sicily, and Italy. Though persecuted by Diocletian, and afterwards by Christian emperors, it found some adherents as late as the sixth century, and certain of its ideas came forth under new names at a still later date. Among Christian writers, Augustine produced the most distinguished refutation, being all the better prepared for his task by his nine years' experience as a Manichæan. [The Acts of Archelaus, and the treatise of Alexander of Lycopolis, are also of the nature of refutations of Manichæism. The subject is treated at considerable length by Epiphanius, Hær., lxvi., and by Titus of Bostra, Libri Tres Adv. Manichæos.]